What Happened After President Adams Arranged a Negotiated End to the Quasi-war in 1799?

U.South. presidential administration from 1797 to 1801

Presidency of John Adams March 4, 1797 – March four, 1801
Cabinet	Meet list
Party	Federalist
Election	1796
Seat	President's House White House
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Presidential Farewell Address, by U.S President John Adams

The presidency of John Adams, began on March 4, 1797, when John Adams was inaugurated as the second president of the U.s., and concluded on March 4, 1801. Adams, who had served as vice president under George Washington, took office as president later winning the 1796 presidential election. The only member of the Federalist Party to ever serve equally president, his presidency ended after a single term following his defeat in the 1800 presidential election. He was succeeded by Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic-Republican Party.

When Adams entered office, the ongoing war betwixt France and Peachy Uk was causing great difficulties for American merchants on the high seas and arousing intense partisanship amid contending political factions nationwide. Attempts to negotiate with the French led to the XYZ Affair, in which French officials demanded bribes before they would assent to the beginning of negotiations. The XYZ Thing outraged the American public, and the U.s.a. and France engaged in an undeclared naval conflict known as the Quasi-War, which dominated the remainder of Adams's presidency. Adams presided over an expansion of the army and the navy, and the navy won several successes in the Quasi-War.

The increased expenditures associated with these actions required greater federal revenue, and Congress passed the Direct Tax of 1798. The state of war and its associated revenue enhancement provoked domestic unrest, resulting in incidents such as Fries'due south Rebellion. In response to the unrest, both foreign and domestic, the 5th Congress passed four bills, collectively known every bit the Alien and Sedition Acts. Signed into law by the president, these acts made information technology more difficult for immigrants to go U.Due south. citizens, allowed the president to imprison and deport non-citizens who were deemed dangerous or who were from a hostile nation, and criminalized making false statements that were disquisitional of the federal authorities. The Federalist majority argued that the bills strengthened national security during a fourth dimension of conflict, while the Democratic-Republicans harshly criticized the laws.

Opposition to the Quasi-State of war and the Alien and the Sedition Acts, besides as the intra-party rivalry between Adams and Alexander Hamilton, all contributed to Adams's loss to Jefferson in the 1800 election. Historians have difficulty assessing Adams's presidency. Samuel Eliot Morison has written that "he was by temperament unsuited for the presidency. He did know more than any other American, even James Madison, about political science; but as an ambassador he was uneasy."^[ane] Nonetheless, Adams was able to avoid war with French republic, arguing that war should be a last resort to diplomacy. In this statement, he won the nation the respect of its most powerful adversaries. Although Adams was fiercely criticized for signing the Conflicting and Sedition Acts, he never advocated their passage nor personally implemented them, and he pardoned the instigators of Fries's Rebellion. "Seen in this light," observed historian C. James Taylor, "Adams's legacy is one of reason, moral leadership, the rule of law, compassion, and a cautious only active foreign policy that aimed both at securing the national interest and achieving an honorable peace."^[2]

Election of 1796 [edit]

The election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential ballot.^[3] George Washington had been elected to office unanimously in the first 2 presidential elections. Even so, during his presidency, deep philosophical differences manifested between the two leading figures in the assistants—Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Their competing visions of domestic and foreign policy caused a rift inside the assistants,^{[4] [5]} and led to the founding of the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Political party. Washington's declaration that he would not be a candidate for a tertiary term ignited an intense partisan struggle over the presidency.^[vi]

1796 electoral vote totals
Proper noun	Political party		Votes
John Adams		Federalist	71
Thomas Jefferson		Autonomous-Republican	68
Thomas Pinckney		Federalist	59
Aaron Burr		Democratic-Republican	30
Samuel Adams		Autonomous-Republican	15
Oliver Ellsworth		Democratic-Republican	11
George Clinton		Autonomous-Republican	seven
John Jay		Federalist	5
James Iredell		Federalist	iii
John Henry		Autonomous-Republican	2
Samuel Johnston		Federalist	2
George Washington		None	2
C. C. Pinckney		Federalist	i

Similar the previous two presidential elections, no candidates were put directly earlier the voters in 1796. The Constitution instead provided that each state selected presidential electors, and a vote of the presidential electors selected the president.^[seven] As the election took identify before the ratification of the 12th Subpoena, each presidential elector cast two votes for president, though electors were not immune to cast both votes for the same person. The Constitution prescribed that the person receiving the nigh votes would become president, provided that they won votes from a majority of the electors, while the person with the 2nd most electoral votes would become vice president.^[6] Voters chose the presidential electors in vii states. In the remaining ix states, they were chosen by the state's legislature.^[viii]

Vice President John Adams and Hamilton both hoped to lead the Federalist Political party, merely Vice President Adams was widely viewed as Washington's "heir apparent," and he consolidated back up among his party's electors.^[6] The articulate favorite of Democratic-Republicans was Thomas Jefferson, though he was reluctant to run.^[9] The Autonomous-Republicans in Congress held a nominating conclave and named Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their presidential choices.^[6] Jefferson at outset declined the nomination, merely he finally agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and Thomas Pinckney as their presidential candidates.^{[9] [10]} The entrada, was, for the most function, unorganized and sporadic, bars to paper attacks, pamphlets, and political rallies.^[vii] Federalists attacked Jefferson equally a Francophile and an atheist, while the Autonomous-Republicans accused Adams of being an Anglophile and a monarchist.^[8]

In early Nov, France's ambassador to the United states, Pierre Adet, inserted himself into the political argue on behalf of Jefferson, publishing statements designed to arouse anti-British sentiment and to get out the impression that a Jefferson victory would result in improved relations with France.^{[7] [11]} Meanwhile, Hamilton, desiring "a more pliant president than Adams," maneuvered to tip the ballot to Pinckney. He coerced South Carolina Federalist electors, who had pledged to vote for "favorite son" Pinckney, to scatter their 2d votes among candidates other than Adams. Hamilton's scheme was undone, however, when several New England state electors heard of it, conferred, and agreed not to vote for Pinckney.^[12]

The votes of the 138 members of the Balloter College were counted during a articulation session of Congress on February 8, 1797; the top three vote recipients were: Adams 71 votes, Jefferson 69, and Pinckney 59.^{[9] [xiii]} The residue of the votes were dispersed among Burr and nine other candidates.^[14] Almost all of Adams'south votes came from Northern electors, and almost all of Jefferson's votes came from Southern electors.^[8] As President of the Senate, information technology savage to Adams to announce himself as president-elect and his chief opponent, Jefferson, every bit vice president-elect. A week later he delivered an emotional good day spoken communication to the body whose deliberations he had presided over for viii years.^[13] The American two-party system came into being during the run-upwards to the 1796 ballot – the only ballot to engagement in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing parties. The rivalry betwixt New England and the Due south, with the center states holding the balance of power, began to germinate at this time too.^[xv]

Inauguration [edit]

Adams was inaugurated equally the nation'due south 2nd president on March 4, 1797, in the House of Representatives Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia. Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth administered the oath of office, making Adams the first president to receive the oath from a Supreme Court chief justice.^[16]

Adams began his inaugural address (Total text) with a review of the struggle for independence,

When information technology was offset perceived, in early times, that no middle grade for America remained between unlimited submission to a foreign legislature and a total independence of its claims, men of reflection were less apprehensive of danger from the formidable power of fleets and armies they must decide to resist than from those contests and dissensions which would certainly arise apropos the forms of government to exist instituted over the whole and over the parts of this extensive country. Relying, however, on the purity of their intentions, the justice of their crusade, and the integrity and intelligence of the people, under an overruling Providence which had so signally protected this country from the first, the representatives of this nation, then consisting of little more than half its present number, not only broke to pieces the bondage which were forging and the rod of iron that was lifted up, only frankly cut disconnected the ties which had bound them, and launched into an sea of uncertainty.

The 2,308-word spoken language^[17] included an eloquent tribute to George Washington, a call for political unity, and a pledge to support the development of institutions of learning. To the chagrin of some of his Federalist allies, Adams besides praised the French nation.^[18]

At the fourth dimension he entered function, the country's population stood at around five million people, with two-thirds of those living within i hundred miles of the Eastward Coast of the Usa.^[xix] The greatest population growth, however, was occurring in regions west of the Appalachian Mountains. By the end of his term, 500,000 people, principally from New England, Virginia and Maryland, had migrated west into Kentucky, Tennessee and the Northwest Territory.^[20]

Administration [edit]

Cabinet [edit]

The Adams Chiffonier
Part	Proper noun	Term
President	John Adams	1797–1801
Vice President	Thomas Jefferson	1797–1801
Secretary of State	Timothy Pickering	1797–1800
John Marshall	1800–1801
Secretary of the Treasury	Oliver Wolcott Jr.	1797–1800
Samuel Dexter	1801
Secretarial assistant of War	James McHenry	1797–1800
Samuel Dexter	1800–1801
Chaser General	Charles Lee	1797–1801
Secretary of the Navy	Benjamin Stoddert	1798–1801

Aside from the date process, the Constitution included only a passing reference to the operation of executive branch agencies.^[21] Late in Washington'south first term, the term "cabinet" began to exist applied to the heads of the executive branch departments, and Washington relied on his cabinet as an advisory council.^[22] While the Constitution made it articulate that the people appointed to atomic number 82 these agencies answered to the president, information technology was silent on termination of cabinet appointments.^[23] When Adams became president, there was no precedent regarding the connected service of the previous president's height officials. Rather than seize the opportunity to use patronage to build a loyal grouping of advisors, Adams retained Washington's cabinet, although none of its members had ever been close to him.^[24]

Three cabinet members, Timothy Pickering, James McHenry, and Oliver Wolcott Jr., were devoted to Hamilton and referred every major policy question to him in New York. These cabinet members, in turn, presented Hamilton'due south recommendations to the president, and oft actively worked against Adams's proposals.^{[one] [25]} "The Hamiltonians by whom he is surrounded," wrote Jefferson in a May 1797 alphabetic character, "are simply a piffling less hostile to him than to me."^[26] The other holdover from the Washington administration, Chaser General Charles Lee, worked well with Adams and remained in the chiffonier for the duration of Adams's presidency.^[27] In 1798, Benjamin Stoddert of Maryland became the first Secretary of the Navy, and Stoddert emerged as one of Adams's most important advisers.^[28] As a split grew between Adams and the Hamiltonian fly of the Federalists during the 2nd half of Adams'due south term, the president relied less on the advice of Pickering, McHenry, and Wolcott.^[29] Upon acumen the telescopic of Hamilton's behind the scenes manipulations, Adams dismissed Pickering and McHenry in 1800, replacing them with John Marshall and Samuel Dexter, respectively.^[30]

Vice presidency [edit]

Adams and Jefferson started off cordially; they had become friends 20 years before, while serving together in the Second Continental Congress. On the eve of their inaugurations, they met briefly to discuss the possibility of sending Jefferson to France every bit function of a iii-member delegation to calm the increasingly turbulent relations between the two countries. When they ended that this would be an improper office for the vice president, they agreed on substituting Jefferson's political ally, James Madison. Shortly after the inauguration, Jefferson informed Adams that Madison was not interested in the diplomatic mission to France. Adams replied that, in any upshot, he would not have been able to select Madison because of pressure from within his cabinet to appoint a Federalist. That was the last fourth dimension Adams consulted Jefferson on an issue of national significance. For his office, the vice president turned exclusively to his political office equally leader of the Democratic-Republicans and to his governmental duty equally the Senate's presiding officer.^[31]

Judicial appointments [edit]

Adams had the opportunity to make full three Supreme Court vacancies during his term in office. In December 1798, the Senate confirmed Adams'south nomination of Bushrod Washington, nephew of former President Washington, to succeed Associate Justice James Wilson. One year later, Alfred Moore succeeded Associate Justice James Iredell. Then, in January 1801, Adams named John Marshall as the Supreme Court'southward fourth Primary Justice, replacing Oliver Ellsworth, who had retired due to ill health. Adams had initially nominated former Chief Justice John Jay, only Jay declined to render to his former position.^[32] Marshall, who was serving as Secretary of Land at the time, was quickly confirmed by the Senate, and took role on February iv. He continued to serve equally Secretary of State until Adams' term expired on March 4.^[33]

Foreign affairs [edit]

Relations with France [edit]

XYZ Affair [edit]

Adams's term was marked past disputes concerning the land'due south office, if any, in the expanding conflict in Europe, where Britain and France were at war. Hamilton and the Federalists supported U.k., while Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans favored France.^[34] The intense battle over the Jay Treaty in 1795 had previously polarized politics throughout the nation and alienated the French.^[35] The Jay Treaty had resolved few of the major American complaints confronting the British, including the ongoing British impressment of American sailors, but Washington viewed the treaty as the best method of avoiding another state of war with the British.^[36] The French were outraged by the Jay Treaty and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British. In the 1796 elections, the French supported Jefferson for president, and they became even more belligerent at his loss.^[37] All the same, when Adams took office, pro-French sentiment in the The states remained strong due to France'southward assist during the Revolutionary War.^{[38] [39]}

A political drawing depicts the XYZ Thing – America is a woman being plundered by Frenchmen. (1798)

Adams hoped to maintain friendly relations with French republic, and he sent a delegation to Paris, consisting of John Marshall, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Elbridge Gerry, to inquire for compensation for the French attacks on American shipping. When the envoys arrived in October 1797, they were kept waiting for several days, so finally granted only a 15-minute meeting with French Foreign Government minister Talleyrand. Afterward this, the diplomats were met by three of Talleyrand's agents. Each refused to conduct diplomatic negotiations unless the United States paid enormous bribes, one to Talleyrand personally, and another to the Republic of France.^[40] The Americans refused to negotiate on such terms.^[41] Marshall and Pinckney returned dwelling, while Gerry remained.^[42]

In an April 1798 spoken communication to Congress, Adams publicly revealed Talleyrand's machinations, sparking public outrage at the French.^[43] Democratic-Republicans were skeptical of the administration's account of what became known every bit the "XYZ affair." Many of Jefferson'southward supporters would undermine and oppose Adams'due south efforts to defend against the French.^[44] Their principal fright was that war with French republic would lead to an alliance with England, which in plough could allow the allegedly monarchist Adams to further his domestic calendar. For their office, many Federalists, particularly the conservative "ultra-Federalists," securely feared the radical influence of the French Revolution. Economics likewise drove the split up between Federalists and Autonomous-Republicans, equally Federalists sought financial ties with England, while many Democratic-Republicans feared the influence of English creditors.^[45]

Quasi-War [edit]

The president saw no advantage in joining the British-led alliance against France. He therefore pursued a strategy whereby American ships harassed French ships in an try sufficient to stem the French assaults on American interests, beginning an undeclared naval war known as the Quasi-War.^[35] In light of the threat of invasion from the more powerful French forces, Adams asked Congress to authorize a major expansion of the navy and the creation of a 20-five thousand human being army. Congress authorized a ten-thousand human army and a moderate expansion of the navy, which at the time consisted of 1 unarmed custom boat.^{[46] [19]} Washington was deputed equally senior officeholder of the army, and Adams reluctantly agreed to Washington'south request that Hamilton serve equally the regular army'south second-in-command.^[47] It became apparent that Hamilton was truly in accuse due to Washington'south advanced years. The angered president remarked at the time, "Hamilton I know to be a proud Spirited, complacent, aspiring Mortal always pretending to Morality," he wrote, but "with every bit debauched Morals as old Franklin who is more his Model than anyone I know."^[35] Due to his support for the expansion of the navy and the creation of the United States Department of the Navy, Adams is "often called the father of the American Navy".^[48]

During the quasi-war, the navy achieved several victories, including the capture of L'Insurgente, a powerful French warship. The navy as well opened merchandise relations with Saint-Domingue (now known as Haiti), a rebellious French colony in the Caribbean area Body of water.^[49] Over the opposition of many in his own party, Adams resisted the escalation of the war. The president'due south continued support for Elbridge Gerry, a Democratic-Republican who Adams had sent to French republic at the first of his term and who continued to seek peace with the French, particularly frustrated many Federalists.^[50] Hamilton'southward influence in the War Department as well widened the rift between Federalist supporters of Adams and Hamilton. At the same fourth dimension, the creation of a large standing regular army raised popular warning and played into the hands of the Democratic-Republicans.^[51]

In Feb 1799, Adams surprised many by announcing that he would ship diplomat William Vans Murray on a peace mission to France. Adams delayed sending a delegation while he awaited the construction of several U.S. warships, which he hoped would alter the balance of power in the Caribbean area. Much to the chagrin of Hamilton and other arch-Federalists, the delegation was finally dispatched in November 1799.^[52] The president'south conclusion to send a second delegation to France precipitated a bitter split in the Federalist Party, and some Federalist leaders began to look for an alternative to Adams in the 1800 presidential election.^[53] The prospects for peace between the U.S. and France were bolstered by the ascent of Napoleon in November 1799, as he viewed the Quasi-War as a distraction from the ongoing war in Europe. In the spring of 1800, the delegation sent by Adams began negotiating with the French delegation, led by Joseph Bonaparte.^[54]

The war came to a shut in September when both parties signed the Convention of 1800, but the French refused to recognize the abdication of the Treaty of Brotherhood of 1778, which had created a Franco-American alliance.^[55] The United States gained little from the settlement other than the intermission of hostilities with the French, but the timing of the agreement proved fortunate for the U.S., as the French would gain a temporary reprieve from war with Britain in the 1802 Treaty of Amiens.^[56] News of the signing of the convention did not arrive in the United states until after the election. Overcoming the opposition of some Federalists, Adams was able to win Senate ratification of the convention in February 1801.^[57] Having concluded the war, Adams demobilized the emergency ground forces.^[58]

Relations with Spain [edit]

The U.S. and Spain had signed the Treaty of San Lorenzo in 1795, which set border with the Spanish territory of Louisiana. Yet with state of war between France and the United States looming, Spain was tedious to implement the terms of the treaty, which included the Spanish cession of the Yazoo lands and the disarmament of Spanish forts along the Mississippi River. Shortly after Adams took office, Senator William Blount'south plans to drive the Spanish out of Louisiana and Florida became public, causing a deterioration in relations betwixt the U.S. and Kingdom of spain. Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan patriot, also attempted to stir up support for an American intervention confronting Espana, possibly with the help of the British. Rejecting Hamilton's ambitions for the seizure of Spanish territory, Adams refused to meet with Miranda, squashing the plot. Having avoided state of war with both France and Spain, the Adams administration oversaw the implementation of the Treaty of San Lorenzo.^[59]

Domestic diplomacy [edit]

Move to Washington DC [edit]

In 1790, Congress, through the Residence Act, had set the site for a permanent national capital forth the Potomac River. December 1800 was set up as the deadline for completion of government buildings in the new capital letter. The nascent urban center was named afterwards President Washington, and the federal district surrounding it was named Columbia, which was a poetic proper name for the United States normally in utilise at that time. The Act also moved the temporary capital from New York City to Philadelphia as of 1791.^[threescore]

Congress adjourned its final coming together in Philadelphia on May 15, 1800, and the urban center officially ceased to be the nation's seat of government as of June 11.^[61] In June 1800, Adams made his first official visit to Washington; among the "raw and unfinished" cityscape, the president found the public buildings "in a much greater forwardness of completion than expected." The north (Senate) wing of the Capitol was nearly completed, as was the White Business firm.^[62] The president moved into the White House on November ane, and Commencement Lady Abigail Adams arrived a few weeks later on. Upon arriving, Adams wrote to her, "Before I end my alphabetic character, I pray Heaven to bequeath the all-time of Blessings on this Firm and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none only honest and wise Men ever rule under this roof."^{[63] [64]}

The Senate of the 6th Congress met for the start time in the Capitol building on November 17, 1800. On November 22, Adams delivered his fourth State of the Marriage Address to a joint session of Congress in the Senate chamber.^[65] He began his speech past congratulating members on their new seat of government and—pointedly—"on the prospect of a residence not to be changed." He added, optimistically, "Although there is some cause to apprehend that accommodations are not now so consummate as might be wished, withal in that location is bang-up reason to believe that this inconvenience will terminate with the present session." This would be the terminal annual message any president would personally deliver to Congress for the side by side 113 years.^[66] The following February, Congress approved the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the District of Columbia. In accordance with the Constitution, Congress became the district'southward governing dominance.^[60]

Alien and Sedition Acts [edit]

BEP engraved portrait of Adams as President

The U.Due south. became increasingly polarized past the Quasi-War, and Adams faced bitter attacks in the press. Many recent immigrants, including those from Ireland, looked favorably on the French and opposed the British. 1 Irish-American congressman, Matthew Lyon, engaged in a fist fight with a Federalist congressman. In an try to quell the threat of subversion among hostile immigrants, the Federalists passed a series of laws, the "Alien and Sedition Acts" in 1798.^[35] Historians debate Adams' involvement beyond his signature; he denied seeking the acts in his memoirs, only his complaints virtually "libelous" attacks on his presidency may have played a role in the laws' passage.^[67]

The Alien and Sedition Acts consisted of four measures – the Naturalization Act, the Conflicting Friends Act, the Alien Enemies Act, and the Sedition Act. These statutes were designed to mitigate the threat of secessionists by disallowing their nearly extreme firebrands. The Naturalization Act increased to 14 years the period of residence required for an immigrant to attain American citizenship, partly considering naturalized citizens tended to vote for the Democratic-Republicans. The Alien Friends Deed and the Alien Enemies Act allowed the president to comport any greenhorn whom he considered unsafe to the country. The Sedition Deed fabricated it a crime to publish "fake, scandalous, and malicious writing" confronting the authorities or its officials. Punishments included two–5 years in prison and fines of up to $5,000.^[68]

The acts became controversial due to the prosecution of a congressman and a number of paper editors. The Federalist administration initiated fourteen or more indictments under the Sedition Act, as well as suits against 5 of the six almost prominent Democratic-Republican newspapers. According to biographer Ferling, the bulk of the legal deportment began in 1798 and 1799, and went to trial on the eve of the 1800 presidential ballot; the timing hardly appeared coincidental. Other historians have cited prove that the Alien and Sedition Acts were rarely enforced: only ten convictions under the Sedition Act accept been identified; Adams never signed a deportation lodge; and the sources of expressed furor over the acts were Democratic-Republicans. However, other historians have emphasized that the acts were used for political targeting from the beginning, causing many aliens to leave the country. The acts likewise allowed for the prosecution of many who opposed the Federalists, even on the floor of Congress.^[69]

Rejecting the constitutionality of the acts, Jefferson and Madison secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, in which the governments of Kentucky and Virginia purportedly nullified the acts.^[lxx] As debate over the acts continued, the election of 1800 became a biting and volatile competition, with each side expressing extraordinary fear of the other and its policies. After Democratic-Republicans prevailed in the elections of 1800, they used the acts against Federalists before the laws finally expired.^[35]

Taxation and Fries'south Rebellion [edit]

To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and his Federalist allies enacted the Direct Tax of 1798. Direct taxation past the federal government was widely unpopular, and the authorities'south revenue under Washington had mostly come from excise taxes and tariffs. Though Washington had maintained a counterbalanced budget with the aid of a growing economic system, increased military expenditures threatened to cause major budget deficits, and Hamilton, Alcott, and Adams adult a taxation program to meet the demand for increased government revenue. The Direct Revenue enhancement of 1798 instituted a progressive land value tax of upward to i% of the value of a holding. Taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania resisted federal tax collectors, and in March 1799 the anemic Fries's Rebellion broke out. Led past Revolutionary War veteran John Fries, rural High german-speaking farmers protested what they saw as a threat to their republican liberties and to their churches.^[71] The revenue enhancement revolt raised the specter of grade warfare, and Hamilton led the regular army into the area to put down the defection. The subsequent trial of Chips gained wide national attention, and Adams pardoned Fries and ii others afterwards they were sentenced to be executed for treason. The rebellion, the deployment of the army, and the results of the trials alienated many in Pennsylvania and other states from the Federalist Party, dissentious Adams's re-election hopes.^[72]

Midnight judges [edit]

From early in his presidency, Adams had advocated for the creation of new federal judgeships, but had been rebuffed by Congress. After the Federalists lost command of both houses of Congress and the presidency in the ballot of 1800, many previously-opposed Federalists came to support the proposal, as expansion of the courts would allow for the engagement of numerous Federalists to life-tenured government positions. The lame-duck session of the sixth Congress approved the Judiciary Act of 1801, which created a set of federal appeals courts between the district courts and the Supreme Court. Information technology as well reduced the size of the Supreme Court from vi justices to five, to have upshot upon the next vacancy. This was done in club to deny Jefferson an opportunity to appoint a justice until two vacancies occurred. As Adams filled these new positions during the final days of his presidency, opposition newspapers and politicians soon began referring to the appointees as "midnight judges." Most of these judges lost their posts when the Autonomous-Republican-dominated 7th Congress canonical the Judiciary Act of 1802, abolishing the newly created courts, and returning the federal court system to its earlier construction.^{[73] [74]}

Afterward being swept out of ability in 1800 by Jefferson and the Democratic-Republican Party, the Federalists focused their hopes for the survival of the republic on the federal judiciary.^[33] During Marshall's 34 years equally primary justice, the Marshall Court played a major part in increasing the federal government'due south power and in establishing the judiciary equally a co-equal branch of the federal regime aslope the executive and legislative branches.^[75] Later, Adams reflected, "My gift of John Marshall to the people of the United States was the proudest deed of my life."^[76]

Other Domestic Issues [edit]

Throughout his entire life, Adams strongly opposed slavery and refused to ain whatever slaves.^[77] In 1800, the Slave Trade Act of 1800 was proposed to Congress and Adams signed it into law on May 10, 1800.

George Logan was a Senator who secretly negotiating with France in 1798. Many were outraged that an boilerplate citizen went to Paris to negotiate with a foreign power and so they passed the Logan Deed in response. John Adams signed the bill.The intent behind the Act is to prevent unauthorized negotiations from undermining the government's position.^[78]

Election of 1800 [edit]

With the Federalist Party deeply split over his negotiations with France, and the opposition Democratic-Republicans enraged over the Conflicting and Sedition Acts and the expansion of the military, Adams faced a daunting reelection entrada in 1800.^[eight] Fifty-fifty so, his position within the political party was strong, bolstered past his indelible popularity in New England, a central region for any Federalist presidential entrada. Some observers even talked about a possible brotherhood between Jefferson and Adams, but such a possibility never materialized.^[79] In early 1800, Federalist members of Congress nominated Adams and Charles C. Pinckney for the presidency; the caucus did not explicitly betoken which individual was favored for the presidency or the vice presidency. The Autonomous-Republicans, meanwhile, nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidates in the previous ballot, simply designated Jefferson as the party'south first choice.^[73]

The campaign was bitter and marked by malicious insults from both sides' partisan press. The Federalists claimed that the Republicans were radicals who would ruin the country through revolution. Republicans were the enemies of "all who love order, peace, virtue, and religion." They were said to exist libertines and dangerous radicals who favored states' rights over the Union and would instigate chaos and civil war. Jefferson's rumored affairs with slaves were used confronting him. Republicans, for their part, accused federalists of undermining republican principles through punitive federal laws, as well as of favoring United kingdom and the other coalition countries in their war with France in order to promote aristocratic, anti-republican values. Jefferson was portrayed as an apostle of liberty and man of the people, while Adams was labelled a monarchist. He was defendant of insanity and marital infidelity.^[lxxx] James T. Callender, a Republican propagandist secretly financed past Jefferson, launched potent attacks on Adams'southward grapheme and accused him of attempting to make war with France. Callender was arrested and jailed nether the Sedition Act, which merely further inflamed Republican passions.^[81]

At times, opposition from the Federalist Political party was every bit intense. Some, including Pickering, defendant Adams of colluding with Jefferson then that he would end up either president or vice president.^[82] Hamilton was hard at piece of work, attempting to sabotage the President'due south reelection. In planning an indictment of Adams' graphic symbol, he requested and received private documents from both the ousted cabinet secretaries and Wolcott.^[83] The letter was initially intended for only a few Federalist electors. Upon seeing a draft, several Federalists urged Hamilton not to send it. Wolcott wrote that "the poor old man" could do himself in without their help. But Hamilton did not heed their communication.^[84] On October 24, he sent a pamphlet strongly attacking Adams on a number of points. Hamilton denounced many of Adams's policy decisions, including the "precipitate nomination" of Murray, the pardoning of Fries, and the firing of Pickering. He as well included a fair share of personal insults, vilifying the President's "disgusting egotism" and "ungovernable atmosphere." Adams, he ended, was "emotionally unstable, given to impulsive and irrational decisions, unable to coexist with his closest directorate, and generally unfit to be president."^[85] Strangely, information technology ended by saying that the electors should support Adams and Pinckney equally.^[86] Cheers to Burr, who had covertly obtained a copy, the pamphlet became public knowledge and was distributed throughout the state by Republicans, who rejoiced in what it contained.^[87] The pamphlet destroyed the Federalist Party, concluded Hamilton'due south political career, and helped ensure Adams'due south already-likely defeat.^[86]

1800 electoral vote totals[88]
Proper name	Party		Votes
Thomas Jefferson		Democratic-Republican	73
Aaron Burr		Democratic-Republican	73
John Adams		Federalist	65
C. C. Pinckney		Federalist	64
John Jay		Federalist	ane

When the electoral votes were counted, Adams finished in tertiary place with 65 votes, and Pinckney came in fourth with 64 votes (one New England Federalist elector voted for John Jay instead). Jefferson and Burr tied for first identify with 73 votes each. Because of the necktie, the election devolved upon the Firm of Representatives. As specified past the Constitution, each state'due south delegation voted en bloc, with each state having a unmarried vote; an accented bulk (nine, equally there were 16 states at the time) was required for victory. On Feb 17, 1801 – on the 36th ballot – Jefferson was elected by a vote of 10 to 4 (two states abstained).^{[eight] [14]} It is noteworthy that Hamilton's scheme, although information technology made the Federalists appear divided and therefore helped Jefferson win, failed in its overall attempt to woo Federalist electors away from Adams.^[89]

Ferling attributes Adams's defeat to five factors: the stronger organization of the Republicans; Federalist disunity; the controversy surrounding the Alien and Sedition Acts; the popularity of Jefferson in the S; and the effective politicking of Aaron Burr in New York.^[90] Analyzing the causes of the party's trouncing, Adams wrote, "No political party that ever existed knew itself so trivial or and so vainly overrated its own influence and popularity as ours. None ever understood so ill the causes of its own power, or so wantonly destroyed them."^[91] Stephen G. Kurtz argues that Hamilton and his supporters were primarily responsible for the destruction of the Federalist Party. They viewed the party as a personal tool and played into the hands of the Jeffersonians by building upwardly a large standing army and creating a feud with Adams.^[92] Chernow writes that Hamilton believed that past eliminating Adams, he could somewhen pick upward the pieces of the ruined Federalist Party and lead information technology back to dominance. "Meliorate to purge Adams and let Jefferson govern for a while than to water down the political party's ideological purity with compromises," Chernow says.^[89]

To compound the desperation of his defeat, Adams's son Charles, a long-time alcoholic, died on November 30. Broken-hearted to rejoin Abigail, who had already left for Massachusetts, Adams departed the White House in the predawn hours of March iv, 1801, and did not attend Jefferson's inauguration. Since him, simply four outgoing presidents (having served a full term) have non attended their successors' inaugurations.^[73] Adams wrote that he had left the adjacent president a nation "with its coffers full" and "fair prospects of peace."^[93] The transfer of presidential power between Adams and Jefferson represented the starting time such transfer between two different political parties in U.S. history, and set the precedent for all subsequent inter-party transitions.^[94] The complications arising out of the 1796 and 1800 elections prompted Congress and the states to refine the process whereby the Electoral College elects a president and a vice president. The new procedure was enacted through the twelfth Subpoena, which became a part of the Constitution in June 1804 and first took effect in the 1804 presidential election.

Historical reputation [edit]

Historian Stephen Kurtz has argued:^[95]

In 1796 Adams stood at the pinnacle of his career. Contemporaries as well as historians ever since take judged him a man of wisdom, honesty, and devotion to the national interest; at the aforementioned time, his suspicions and theories led him to fall short of attaining that full mensurate of greatness for which he longed and labored.... As the nation entered the severe crisis with revolutionary France, and in his attempt to steer the country between humiliating concessions and a potentially disastrous state of war [he] played a lone hand which left him isolated from increasingly bewildered and better Federalist leaders. His decision to renew peace negotiations after the XYZ Affair, the buildup of armaments, the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, and the appointment of Hamilton to control of the ground forces came like an explosion in February 1799. While a majority of Americans were relieved and sympathetic, the Federalist party lay shattered in 1800 on the eve of its decisive conflict with Jeffersonian Republicanism.

Polls of historians and political scientists rank Adams toward the top of the middle third of presidents. Historian George Herring argues that Adams was the most contained-minded of the founders.^[96] Though he aligned with the Federalists, he was somewhat a political party unto himself, disagreeing with the Federalists as much as he did the Jeffersonian Republicans.^[97] He was often described as "prickly", but his tenacity was fed past expert decisions made in the confront of universal opposition.^[96] Adams was oftentimes antagonistic, which macerated presidential decorum, as Adams himself admitted in his former historic period: "[As president] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore."^[98] Adams' resolve to advance peace with France, rather than to continue hostilities, especially reduced his popularity.^[99] This played an important function in his reelection defeat, however he was so pleased with the outcome that he had information technology engraved on his tombstone.^[100] Historian Ralph Adams Brown argues that, by keeping the United States out of war with France, Adams allowed the fledgling nation to abound and prosper into the transcontinental nation it somewhen became in the 19th century.^[101]

Polls of historians and political scientists accept generally ranked Adams as an boilerplate or above-average president, and one of the best who served a single term. In a 2017 C-SPAN survey 91 presidential historians ranked Adams 19th among the 43 former presidents, (downward from 17th in 2009). His rankings in the various categories of this most recent poll were as follows: public persuasion (22), crisis leadership (17), economic management (xv), moral authority (xi), international relations (xiii), administrative skills (21), relations with congress (24), vision/setting an agenda (xx), pursued equal justice for all (15), performance with context of times (19).^[102] A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Adams as the fourteenth best president.^[103]

See also [edit]

• Diplomacy of John Adams
• Federalist Era

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Morison 1965, p. 347
2. ^ Taylor, C. James. "John Adams: Bear on and Legacy". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved February 8, 2017.
3. ^ Bomboy, Scott (October 22, 2012). "Inside America'south commencement muddied presidential campaign, 1796 fashion". Constitution Daily. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: National Constitution Center. Retrieved August 18, 2017.
4. ^ Ferling, John (February 15, 2016). "How the Rivalry Between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton Changed History". Time. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
5. ^ Taylor, Alan (October 17, 2016). "Our Feuding Founding Fathers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
6. ^ ^{a b c d} Diggins 2003, pp. 83-88
7. ^ ^{a b c} Smith 1962, pp. 898–899
8. ^ ^{a b c d e} Taylor, C. James. "John Adams: Campaigns and Elections". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Diplomacy, University of Virginia. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
9. ^ ^{a b c} McDonald 1974, pp. 178–181
10. ^ Hoadley 1986, p. 54
11. ^ McDonald 1974, p. 183
12. ^ Smith 1962, p. 902
13. ^ ^{a b} Smith 1962, p. 914
14. ^ ^{a b} "Balloter College Box Scores 1789–1996". College Park, Maryland: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
15. ^ Pasley 2013, p. 10
16. ^ "The 3rd Presidential Inauguration: John Adams, March 04, 1797". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Senate. Retrieved Baronial 23, 2017.
17. ^ "Inaugural Address". Washington, D.C.: U.Due south. Senate. Retrieved Baronial 23, 2017.
18. ^ Morison 1965, p. 918–920
19. ^ ^{a b} Brown 1975, pp. 22–23
20. ^ Taylor, C. James. "John Adams: The American Franchise". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved Baronial 23, 2017.
21. ^  This commodity incorporates public domain material from the United States Senate document: "Commencement Cabinet Confirmation". Retrieved August 25, 2017.
22. ^ Dark-brown 1975, p. 26
23. ^ "Ten Facts About Washington's Presidency". Mountain Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington'southward Mount Vernon. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
24. ^ Ferling 2004, 96–97
25. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 90–92
26. ^ "From Thomas Jefferson to Elbridge Gerry, 13 May 1797". Founders Online. Washington, D.C.: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved Baronial 25, 2017.
27. ^ Dark-brown 1975, p. 29
28. ^ Chocolate-brown 1975, p. 55
29. ^ Brown 1975, p. 168
30. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 170–172
31. ^  This commodity incorporates public domain cloth from the U.S. Senate document: "Thomas Jefferson, 2nd Vice President (1797–1801)". Retrieved Baronial 26, 2017.
32. ^ "Supreme Court Nominations: 1789–Present". Washington, D.C.: The states Senate. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
33. ^ ^{a b} Burton, Harold H. (October 1950). "The Cornerstone of Constitutional Constabulary: The Extraordinary Case of Marbury 5. Madison". ABA Journal. Chicago, Illinois: American Bar Clan. 36 (10): 805–08, 881–83. ISSN 0747-0088. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
34. ^ Wood 2009
35. ^ ^{a b c d e} Ferling 1992, ch. 17
36. ^ Dark-brown 1975, pp. 36–37
37. ^ Herring 2008, p. 82.
38. ^ Kurtz 1957, ch. 13
39. ^ Miller 1960, ch. 12
40. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 495
41. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 495–496
42. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 502
43. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 96–99
44. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 104–105
45. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 106–107
46. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 105–106
47. ^ Elkins & McKitrick 1993, pp. 714–19
48. ^ "John Adams I (Frigate) 1799–1867". Washington, D.C.: Naval History and Heritage Command, U.S. Navy. Retrieved August 22, 2015.
49. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 141–143
50. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 118–119
51. ^ Kurtz 1957, p. 331
52. ^ Chocolate-brown 1975, pp. 112–113, 162
53. ^ Brown 1975, p. 175
54. ^ Chocolate-brown 1975, pp. 162–164
55. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 165–166
56. ^ Diggins 2003, 145–146
57. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 173–174
58. ^ Ferling 1992, ch. 18
59. ^ Brownish 1975, pp. 138–148
60. ^ ^{a b} Crew, Webb & Wooldridge 1892, pp. 101–103
61. ^ "May 15, 1800: President John Adams orders federal government to Washington, D.C." This Day In History. New York: A&Eastward Networks. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
62. ^ Smith 1962, p. 1036
63. ^ Smith 1962, p. 1049
64. ^ "John Adams". [First published in The Presidents of the United states of america of America (2006), past Frank Freidel and Hugh Sidey. Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association.] Washington, D.C.: The White House. Retrieved August 14, 2017. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
65. ^ Smith 1962, p. 1050
66. ^  This commodity incorporates public domain textile from the United States Senate document: "The Senate Moves to Washington". Retrieved August 15, 2017.
67. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 110–113
68. ^ Ferling 1992, ch. 16
69. ^ Chernow 2004, p. 668
70. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 115–117
71. ^ Elkins & McKitrick 1993, pp. 696–700.
72. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 129–137
73. ^ ^{a b c} Ferling 1992, ch. 19
74. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 198–200
75. ^ "Life & Legacy". Richmond, Virginia: The John Marshall Foundation. Archived from the original on May 29, 2011. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
76. ^ Unger, Harlow Giles (November 16, 2014). "Why Naming John Marshall Principal Justice Was John Adams's "Greatest Gift" to the Nation". History News Network. Retrieved February 8, 2017.
77. ^ Ferling 1992, p. 95-97.
78. ^ https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/RL33265.pdf^{[ bare URL PDF ]}
79. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 176–177
80. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 543–545.
81. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 536–537.
82. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 544.
83. ^ Chernow 2004, pp. 619–620.
84. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 549.
85. ^ Hamilton, Alexander. "Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the Usa, [24 October 1800]". National Archives. Retrieved August 22, 2018.
86. ^ ^{a b} McCullough 2001, p. 550.
87. ^ Morse 1884, pp. 320–321.
88. ^ "1800 Presidential Electoral Vote Count". Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Dave Leip. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
89. ^ ^{a b} Chernow 2004, p. 626.
90. ^ Ferling 1992, pp. 404–405.
91. ^ Smith 1962, p. 1053.
92. ^ Kurtz 1957, p. 331.
93. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 566.
94. ^ Diggins 2003, pp. 158–159
95. ^ Stephen G. Kurtz, "Adams, John" in John A. Garraty, ed., Encyclopedia of American Biography (1974) pp. 12-fourteen.
96. ^ ^{a b} Herring 2008, p. 89
97. ^ Chernow 2004, p. 647
98. ^ Ellis 1993, p. 57
99. ^ Herring 2008, p. 90
100. ^ Herring 2008, p. 91
101. ^ Dark-brown 1975, pp. 214–215
102. ^ "Historians Survey Results: John Adams". Presidential Historians Survey 2017. National Cable Satellite Corporation. 2017. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
103. ^ Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (19 February 2018). "How Does Trump Stack Up Confronting the All-time — and Worst — Presidents?". New York Times . Retrieved fourteen May 2018.

Works cited [edit]

• Allen, William C. (2001). History of the United states Capitol: A Chronicle of Design, Construction, and Politics. S. Doc. 106-29. Regime Press Office. ISBN0-16-050830-4. Archived from the original on 2008-12-sixteen. Retrieved 2017-08-20 .
• Brown, Ralph A. (1975). The Presidency of John Adams . American Presidency Serial. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN0-7006-0134-i.
• Chernow, Ron (2004). Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Books. ISBN1-59420-009-2.
• Crew, Harvey West.; Webb, William Bensing; Wooldridge, John, eds. (1892). Centennial History of the Urban center of Washington, D. C.: With Total Outline of the Natural Advantages, Accounts of the Indian Tribes, Selection of the Site, Founding of the City ... to the Nowadays Time. Dayton, Ohio: United Brethern Publishing House. Retrieved August 17, 2017.
• Diggins, John P. (2003). Schlesinger, Arthur Chiliad. (ed.). John Adams. The American Presidents. New York, New York: Time Books. ISBN0-8050-6937-two.
• Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1993). The Historic period of Federalism. Oxford University Press. ISBN0195068904.
• Ellis, Joseph J. (1993). Passionate Sage: The Grapheme and Legacy of John Adams. W. W. Norton & Visitor. ISBN0393311333.
• Ferling, John (1992). John Adams: A Life. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN0-87049-730-8.
• Ferling, John (2004). Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-516771-6.
• Herring, George C. (2008). From colony to superpower: U.S. foreign relations since 1776. Oxford University Printing. ISBN978-0199743773.
• Hoadley, John F. (1986). Origins of American Political Parties: 1789–1803. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN978-0-8131-5320-9.
• Kurtz, Stephen G. (1957). The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795–1800 . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
• McCullough, David (2001). John Adams . Simon & Schuster. p. 144. ISBN978-1-4165-7588-seven.
• McDonald, Forrest (1974). The Presidency of George Washington . American Presidency. University Printing of Kansas. ISBN978-0-7006-0359-6.
• Miller, John C. (1960). The Federalist Era: 1789–1801 .
• Morison, Samuel Eliot (1965). The Oxford History of the American People . New York: Oxford Academy Press. LCCN 65-12468.
• Morse, John Torey (1884). John Adams. Boston, MA: Houghton, Mifflin, and Company. OCLC 926779205.
• Pasley, Jeffrey L. (2013). The First Presidential Contest: 1796 and the Founding of American Democracy. Lawrence, Kansas: The Academy Press of Kansas. ISBN978-0-7006-1907-8.
• Smith, Page (1962). John Adams. Vol. II 1784–1826. New York: Doubleday. LCCN 63-7188.
• Watkins, William J. Jr. (2004). Reclaiming the American Revolution: The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions and their Legacy. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 28. ISBN1-4039-6303-7.
• Wood, Gordon Due south. (2009). Empire of Liberty: A history of the Early Commonwealth, 1789–1815. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0199741090.

Further reading [edit]

• "John Adams." in Lexicon of American Biography (1936) Online
• Akers, Charles W. (2002). "John Adams" in Graff, Henry, ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (tertiary ed.). New York, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0684312263. online.
• Bassett, John Spencer. The Federalist System, 1789–1801 (1906) online free, old scholarly survey
• Bernstein, Richard B. The Educational activity of John Adams (Oxford University Press, 2020).
• Brinkley, Alan, and Davis Dyer, eds. (2004). The American Presidency. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-38273-9.
• Fisher, Louis. "John Adams." in The Presidents and the Constitution, Volume One (New York Academy Press, 2020) pp. 34–46.
• Freeman, Joanne B. (2001). Affairs of Award: National Politics in the New Republic. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09755-seven.
• Grant, James D. (2005). John Adams: Political party of One. New York, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-11314-9.
• Halperin, Terri Diane. The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: Testing the Constitution (Johns Hopkins Upward, 2016) 155pp. online review
• Howe, John R. Jr. (1966). The Changing Political Thought of John Adams. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. LCCN 66-10272.
• Johnson, Ronald Angelo. Diplomacy in Black and White: John Adams, Toussaint Louverture, and Their Atlantic Earth Alliance (U of Georgia Press, 2014), 264pp.
• Sharp, James Roger (1993). American Politics in the Early on Republic: The New Nation in Crunch. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Printing. ISBN 0-300-06519-1.
• White, Leonard Duppe. (1956). The Federalists: A Written report in Authoritative History, ISBN 978-0313201011

External links [edit]

• John Adams: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress
• The John Adams Library at the Boston Public Library
• Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive at the Massachusetts Historical Gild
• Founders Online – Printed Volumes: John Adams from the National Athenaeum
• John Adams Papers at the Avalon Project
• "Life Portrait of John Adams", from C-SPAN'due south American Presidents: Life Portraits, March 22, 1999

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams

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